Do I establish Appropriate Guidelines within which my Kids Can Freely and Safely Function?

We're no longer sure where the guidelines are within which we can freely function. To make matters worse, our anxieties and insecurities increase when we realize that the oncoming traffic has no lines either; nor do they know any better than we do where they belong and what's expected of them!

We're on our own, at least for the moment. And in spite of the greater freedom we now have to move around that has come with the absence of guidelines, we don't like it at all!

We don't like it because we want and need to know what to expect from others and what's expected and required of ourselves. In osing this structure - the well defined expectations for how we're to conduct ourselves; we also lose the feeling of security and predictability that's important for us to feel safe and secure.

At last and none too soon, the lines reappear and again, we know what's expected of us, as well as what we can expect from the on-coming traffic. And once again we feel safe and more secure, even hough (or maybe because) we again have been given restrictions. We're free once again - within certain limitations - to move about freely and as we please.

When we give our kids fair and safe guidelines within which they may freely function, we provide for them the safety and predictability needed for the road they're traveling in life . While they may not always like or value those guidelines, without them they become insecure and unsure.

Without them, life becomes unsafe and unpredictable; with our guidelines, we give them safety and a certain degree of predictability.

This element of predictability is an important ingredient in our efforts to raise great kids who feel safe and secure. One of the reasons that we're all at best, "normal neurotics", is that none of us can predict what might happen next in life.

This uncertainty creates a degree of anxiety for all of us. Even though this absence of predictability provides us with some of the excitement we experience in our lives, it's also a source of some insecurity and anxiety as well.

The task of establishing guidelines - parameters within which our kids may then freely "move around"- is a tool we parents have that will help create in them some degree of safety and security in their lives.

It requires that we be as specific as possible about what we expect, & then to be equally specific & consistent about the consequences they can count on if they step outside our boundaries. This knowing ahead of time (predictability) strengthens their ability to think, consider, & process in terms of that all important "cause-effect" that we talked about in the section on giving them as many choices as possible.

We parents may not like to think about it this way, but our kids really do have a choice regarding whether or not they're going to stay within our guidelines. They do have the freedom of choosing to disobey, so it's important that they know what the consequences will be ahead of time.

This will enable them to process their decision in terms of, "If I do.........., then, I can count on............... I'd better not do it" (At least that's what we hope they decide!). In this way, they're more able to determine what their actions will cost them & whether or not that cost is worth the temporary satisfaction, fun, high, or whatever it is that the misbehavior gives them.

Raising great kids requires that we parents provide them with the safety that comes along with guidelines within which they may freely function. It's only in this way that they'll be able to discover who they are thru stretching, taking healthy & appropriate risks & by safe trial & error.

It's an awesome task, but an exciting one, indeed!

Parenting tips for setting limits with your children. All children need the security of limitations to their behavior, while at the same time needing to grow & explore their world.

Children need boundaries set on their physical movement & limits set on their behavior. A small tot needs to learn quite early that he/she shouldn't go beyond the fence or touch the hot stove.

Just as babies must learn not to run off the top of the stairs, children must be taught the physical limits of the world or else they could seriously hurt themselves.

The behavioral limits we set are the ones that enable the child to function normally within society. These limits give children a sense of security as well as a sense of place. Both are equally important. 

This doesn't mean that children should be allowed to do as they wish, this would amount to irresponsible parenting, but parents should let children know the consequences of their actions & then act when the disobedience or misbahavior reappears.

Oftentimes the parent will not have to act as the child's continuance will bring repercussions from others, particularly peers. This is how we learn, both children & adults.

Children will normally give strong indications as to when they want to push their physical boundaries. It's important for parents to recognize the child is doing this because of curiosity, because of the need to know what's happening "over there'.

If the parent rejects the desire to explore out of hand, without explanation then the child will build up resentment, but if the parent negotiates new limits & explains the reasons then the child will settle into the new routine quickly. Be aware though that these new limits will one day be questioned.

The ability to negotiate & the types of limits depends on the age of the child. Around 4 or 5 is a good age to start negotiating with a child, before this age it's usually necessary to send behavior messages thru physical restraint. Also, the types of negotiating become increasingly complex as the child matures.

A good place to start is to give a responsibility with the increased freedom. i.e., if your child wants to be able to go next door to play, they must come &d tell you first & must not go anywhere else, other than home.

Next door may be the only place that they're allowed to visit without your permission. Later on the rule might change to one where the child can visit next door or the park across the road but they must let you know when they're changing locations & they must first show you they have road sense before being allowed to cross the road on their own.

As the child gets older the physical limits get relaxed but the behavioral limits become a little more exacting. In this way as the child gains freedom they take on more responsibility, this sets them up for later on in life.

As an example, a parent could place a requirement on the child that they'll be polite to the adults & put away toys they play with while there.

By increasing responsibilities with the increased freedom the child learns unconsciously that there are increasing demands on the individual as they're allowed to do more, which will save a lot of conflict with parents later on.

Be Fair. On the flip side of the last point, don't add to the rule just because you're tired. If something has come up that makes you feel that the rule needs to be changed or added to, wait until you've thought it thru & been able to communicate it to your teen.

Don't forget your values. These are the things that make us the people we are, so don't be afraid to communicate them to your teen when setting the limits. Never be taken in by what other parents let their kids do. My standard reply to that is:

'Yes, well, to each his own.' Or you can say one of my longer replies, 'I'm sorry that it bothers you, but these are our rules, yours & mine. This is our family, yours & mine.'

When they come back at you with: 'Well, I wish I wasn't part of this family then!' Take a deep breath & let it go. That is a very normal teenage reaction to limits. It's their job to test them & push your buttons to do that testing.

Setting Limits w/Teens

As children move into the teen years they start to think more like adults. This is both good news & bad.

In the teen years a person can start to think about thinking. Teens consider possibilities as well as realities. This provides them the ability to analyze their own thinking & refine it. It also leads them to question other people & institutions. For many adults it's insufferable to watch a teen start questioning wise adults & time - honored traditions.

Yet it's an important development. As teens move into adulthood, they should have thought about what they believe. If they test, challenge & explore before they make commitments, they're more likely to hold enduring & sensible ideas.

As teens move into adulthood they're likely to hold values much like those of their parents; they will hold them as their own if they have had opportunities to test & think thru the values. As Ginott says, "No one can mature by blindly obeying his parents" (1969, p.150). To better understand teens, read the unit in this series, "The Challenge of Being a Teen."

Parents of teens have the challenge of encouraging such questioning & independence in our teens while helping them honor sensible principles of respect & safety.

Parents of teens should listen respectfully to their teens’ ideas. We can ask questions & offer our view but it isn't helpful to criticize or belittle them.

Teens turn out best when their parents monitor their activities. Wise parents keep track of their teens, their friends, their hobbies & their activities. When teens announce that they're going out, involved parents invite them to talk about where they're going & what they'll be doing.

There are times to set firm limits. There will be times when we need to say, "I don’t feel good about you going to that party." Teens are likely to resist. We can stay calm. "What else could you do?" When they still object we can reply, "I can see that you would really like to go to that party. Since you aren't able to go, what else could you do?"

When teens make rude comments or act insensitively, we can help them discover better ways of acting. Teaching is better than attacking. i.e., we might say, "I can see that you don’t like some of your classmates. When you say unkind things to them, they probably feel very bad."

Teens may play as if they don't care. But gentle messages of compassion have an impact. "We don't belittle their dreams & desires, but we reserve the right to stop & redirect some of their acts" (Ginott, 1969, p.150).

Be involved in positive ways with your teens. Maintain traditions of togetherness. Go to games together. Hike. Shop. Cook. Sing. Play tennis together. Doing things together can strengthen our relationships with our teens.

Applications:

• What are some of the things your teen is excited about? How can you support those healthy explorations?

• What are some evidences you see that your teen is making good decisions? In what areas could you commend him or her: "I’m impressed with the way you decide what movies are worth watching."

• Do you have a policy about unacceptable activities? i.e.: "We don't do anything that harms others or endangers our future." Talk with your teen about the policy that he or she thinks should be enforced. Encourage teens to work with you in forming family rules & policies.

For more information on helping your adolescent, you might enjoy reading "Between Parent and Teenager" by Haim Ginott.

Adapted from Arkansas Cooperative Extension System

1) 1st establish the basic core rules which must be abided, then support these core rules by establishing several preventative rules.

A core rule could be that your teen isn't allowed to do drugs. Therefore, preventative rules could include that they must tell you where they're going & who they're with. If a rule is that the child do their best in school, then the preventative rules could be that they have good attendance & do their homework.

2) Once you have established your set of rules, compliance with the rules will depend on 4 things:

     1. The rules must be clearly defined & understood.
     2. The rules must be monitored.
     3. The rules must be enforced.
     4. Consequences are effective deterrents.

If any of these 4 things aren't in place, it'll drastically affect success. In the next sections, we will address each of these in detail.

3) Clarify the rules. If your rules aren't clearly understood, it leaves a lot of room for misunderstandings, conflicts & even manipulations. Many times parents assume that their teen understands the rules the same way they're intended.

i.e., if you tell your teen to clean their room, their idea of a "clean room" & yours may be miles apart. If you tell them to go to bed when a TV program is over, they may think that means anytime after the program vs. immediately after.

For these reasons, rules need to be very specific. To avoid misunderstanding, it's a good policy to have your teen write down or repeat back their understanding of any rule or expectation.

4) Keep monitoring the progress of rule following. Monitoring is essential in the administration of any rules. As parents, we must provide a safety net for our children by monitoring their behavior & successful completion of chores.

How much we have to monitor depends on the amount necessary for success. Some teens require little & some require extensive monitoring. Let your teen know that you'll be monitoring their behavior. This will keep them from being offended when they notice it & give them added incentive to follow the rules.

5) Be consistent. The hardest, yet most important thing parents can do is to be consistent. A rule, or understanding, that isn't enforced can be the same as having no rule at all & can undermine the well being of a family.

In order for our teens to feel safe, they need to know they can count on us to be consistent & dependable. If a violation occurs, we need to consistently enforce the PREVIOUSLY ESTABLISHED consequence.

A difficult teen will test the boundaries at every chance to see what their true limits will be. That makes consistency so essential. Letting small things slide until they become large things will create chaos, confusion & resentment. While most of us do this from time to time, it's very ineffective parenting. Consistency is the key. Follow thru on what you said you would do.

6) Consequences & deterrence are important. Consequences should vary depending on the violation as well as the teen's response to the consequence. Some teens may respond to the loss of a privilege to go out, while others may not be bothered at all. The key is:

(1) to use consequences w/significant meaning to your child.

(2) the severity of the consequences should match the severity of the violation. Research has shown that immediate consequences are the most effective.

However, some behaviors are so severe that an immediate consequence wouldn't be strong enough by itself. That is why a combination of immediate consequences w/some follow-up consequences is often needed.

Immediate consequences might include such things as writing essays, time-out, room restriction, or a work project. "Immediate consequences" are defined as those administered on the spot & instituted before the teen resumes any normal activity.

"Follow-up consequences" are those applied over a period of time such as loss of driving privileges, book reports, a major (long term) work project, being grounded, additional household chores, or loss of a planned upcoming activity.

Again, a follow-up consequence is sometimes needed to provide an additional deterrent. Consequences used must be strong enough to be an effective deterrent. Otherwise, not only will consequences be ineffective, they'll most likely be ignored.

Some strategies that can work to improve your child's behavior include allowing your child to see the natural consequences of his actions (if she leaves her bike out & it's stolen, then she can't ride it), logical consequences (if she doesn't put gas in the car, then she won't be able to use it) & the most important at this age, withholding privileges (find things that your child enjoys, i.e., talking on the phone, renting movies, going out w/friends on the weekend, etc. & take them away when she misbehaves).

Always remember to be firm, consistent, calm & loving in whatever discipline methods you choose.

Communicating w'your teenager

While your teenager may seem like she is moving away from you, she will still depend on you quite a bit & she should feel like she can come to you w/questions & problems. When she does come to you, try & listen carefully w/out interrupting. Avoid criticizing or trying to fix all of your child's problems for her.

Instead, be supportive & offer suggestions on what you think is the right thing to do. And finally, be supportive of her decisions involving problems that aren't very serious. Even if she makes some wrong choices, it will teach to take responsibility for solving her problems.

Be more aggressive in intervening w/more serious situations, such as drug or alcohol use. It's also important to respect your child's growing need for privacy.

Gone are the days of children coming home from school, eating homemade chocolate chip cookies & then going outside to play w/ their friends until it’s time to do homework.

Today, older children are often home alone after school. As a result, they sometimes are tempted to spend their time being entertained w/video games, watching television, downloading music & chatting on the Internet instead of doing their homework & more active leisure activities. These temptations are all competing for children's time at the expense of their education, health & well being.

Childhood obesity, school violence, ADHD & poor reading & math skills can all be tied to too much mass media play in childhood. Too many children are neglecting schoolwork & exercise in favor of eating chips in front of the TV.

Fast-paced video games & television shows have shortened children's attention spans. Recreational reading is almost nonexistent. Even worse, the violence children see on TV is being replayed in the schools & basic reading & math skills are lagging way behind.

Too Much Media Exposure

Children spend more than 38 hours per week being entertained by the mass media – almost 4 times the amount of time they spend on schoolwork. As a result, academics are suffering. According to research & standardized test scores, American students are struggling to read at proficient levels & most recreational reading has stopped.

Math skills are also lagging. Once children fall behind w/basic academic skills, they have a hard time catching up. This will have long-term ramifications on them, as the future will bring about more advanced jobs & fewer qualified people to fill them. These jobs include medical personnel, engineers, college professors & other highly educated or technical professions.

Overexposure to television starts at an early age. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends no TV for children younger than age 2 & no more than 2 hours per day of high-quality programming for older children.

The truth is that many children watch much more than the recommended guidelines.

The Effects of Excess

Since television entered the home in the 1950's, violence in the media & in the classroom has skyrocketed. Public school teachers often spend more time dealing w/discipline issues than teaching due to student violence & bad behavior.

Could mass media be the reason? Television programs are full of sexually explicit content & violence, as are many music videos & video games. The reason is that "violence & sex sells." But repeated exposure to violent media content can have drastic repercussions. The television news is full of stories of kids re-creating violent acts they saw on TV.

In addition to violent behavior, excessive media consumption can lead to other problems. ADHD or Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, is on the rise today & too much television viewing could be a culprit.

A team of researchers headed by Dr. Dimitri Christakis at the Children's Hospital in Seattle found that television exposure at age 1 to 3 leads to attention problems by age 7.

Research published inPediatrics indicates that every hour of watching TV increases children's odds of having attention problems by about 10% (Elias, 2004). Fast television & scene changing may contribute to shortened attention spans among children.

This creates problems w/slower-paced tasks, especially reading. This shortened attention span, often accompanied by behavioral problems, frequently results in children either being placed in special education classes or being medically treated.

Obesity is another side effect of television. 64% of Americans are overweight or obese, including 9 million children. Eating habits developed in childhood continue thru a lifetime.

The top triangle of the USDA's food pyramid displays the foods that are recommended to be used sparingly. These foods are the ones that are most heavily advertised on television, radio & in print. They'e also heavily marketed toward children.

i.e., children are exposed to 150 to 200 hours worth of television commercials a year, many of them advertisements for "junk" food & fast food. A study conducted in December of 2003 reported in the journal Pediatrics that the more television children watch, the fewer fruits & vegetables they eat, probably because the advertising they see leaves them craving junk food instead.

August 03, 2004

Wimpy parents, bratty kids

Parents who fail to set limits are raising a generation of brats, writes Martin Booe in the Memphis Flyer. He tells the story of a 5 year-old boy at a mostly adult party. He starts by biting Booe, then goes for the window.

The youngster begins kicking the floor-to-ceiling window, which fortunately is made of Plexiglas. His father finally intervenes, taking the child by the arm & pointing out some of the window's unique features.

"You shouldn't kick this window because it's a very special window," he tells his son. "See how the frame ..."

And I'm thinking, Kid, you shouldn't kick the window because in another universe your father would have some vague concept of parental authority. Then there's a barbecue given by a professor named Donald John.

Books on how to assert discipline are selling well, says Booe, so there are parents who see juvenile mayhem as a problem.

Personally, I raised my daughter to be the sort of person I'd want to live w/for 18 years. I frequently said (or shouted), I'm not raising you to be a brat!"  It worked. I like her. Other people like her. She likes herself.

No parent wants to raise a brat. Let's make sure you don't. The best way to not raise a brat is to learn the 5 mistakes that go into making a brat. This may seem like an unusual approach, but once you have learned what to do wrong you'll know w/greater confidence what to do right.

Here are the steps to take if you want to raise a demanding, selfish, rude, self-centered rascal who couldn't care less about rules & the feelings of others.

First, you have to get an early start. I'd say that around 18 months would be about right. It's at this age that parents are no longer dealing w/a passive baby. The baby can now walk & talk & is going thru a stage very much like adolescence. They're asserting their independence & want what they want when they want it.

It's the perfect age for brat development because so much of the normal behavior of this age is naturally bratty. In other words, you've got this little human being that can walk & talk & has practically no sense of self-control. An ideal candidate for a future brat if he is handled right...oops, I should say handled wrong.

Step #2. Assuming you've started at an early age, the next step is to make sure you rarely point out to your child the things he's doing wrong. You must be really permissive & let him get away w/all sorts of things.

Try to be as patient & as accepting as possible. If your child deposits a banana peel on the living room couch, say nothing. If your child plays chemistry by mixing the orange juice w/the chocolate milk, say nothing.

If your darling starts munching cookies just minutes before you serve Sunday dinner, say nothing. At these times, you should say soothing things to yourself like:

• "Isn't he cute?" 
• "He's only a child." 
• "What's a parent to do?"

The crucial point here is that you don't want to give the little rascal any idea he is bothering you or instruct him regarding what you want him to do. You see, a true brat never has been taught that this behavior is troublesome for anyone or that it'll have unpleasant consequences.

A true brat just enjoys himself at everyone's expense.

Step number three: When you do give your child feedback on how awful his behavior is, make sure to do it in a wimpy way. In other words, give him a watered-down reprimand. Here's how to do this.

Scold your child, but at the same time look at him adoringly. Your words will express real disappointment, but your facial expression will be saying, "You're so precious to me."

In this manner your scolding will be immediately washed away by your sweet, loving look. This will convince the little beggar that you really don't mean what you say. He won't believe for one minute that his behavior is a real pain in the behind. Your attention & adoring look will encourage him to return to his pesty behavior before you can blink an eye.

Step #4 calls for setting limits & then quickly backing off. This is an essential ingredient for creating real bratty behavior. I'll explain how it works. Let's say you're really into the brat trap. You're real permissive. You hardly ever give your youngster feedback on how his behavior is affecting others. You're wimpy in your scoldings so he sees you're half-amused & half-annoyed & feels no urgency to stop his behavior.

But there comes a time when you can't stand it any longer, so you set a limit.

Here is how a parent would set a limit if bratty behavior is to be encouraged. Let's imagine that your 5 year old is playing w/the family car parked in the driveway. Sensing the danger of your car being shifted into neutral & ending up in your neighbor's lawn, you remove the little fellow from the car & say, "No."

You've just set a limit. You've taken action to stop some undesirable behavior. Now, however, you immediately walk away or become involved so you can't see the little guy sneak right back into the car. You see, a good brat learns that if he persists he can have his own way.

The best way to teach him this lesson is to set a limit & naively go on to something else, never expecting your child to break your rule. Weak limit-setting teaches that persistence pays off!

You're now ready for lesson #5. To put the finishing touches on your little brat, make sure you take him everywhere you go. Say to yourself that childhood is just too precious & you don't want to miss out on any of your little one's experiences.

Where he goes, you go. By doing this you're teaching him one of the very important lessons that every brat has learned. Mommy & Daddy don't have a separate life from me...I'm everything to them. A good little brat believes he is the center of everything & more important than anyone else.

Let's review these lessons. To raise a really good brat you must, one, start at an early age. This will allow you to take advantage of the normal bratty behavior young children put out & encourage it to continue & grow. Two, you should strive to be permissive & rarely give your child feedback that his behavior is bothersome. In this way, you'll help him to learn to be insensitive to the feelings of others. Three, give mixed messages when scolding your youngster. This teaches that Mommy & Daddy don't mean what they say. Lesson four involves setting weak limits. Weak limit-setting teaches children that persistence pays off & they shouldn't give up trying to get their way. And lesson five requires that you hardly ever separate from your child for private, adult time. This encourages an exaggerated sense of self-importance.

If you follow these lessons carefully, by age 5 your child will be ready to leave home, enter school & drive his teachers right up the wall!

Setting Limits w/Young Children
by Patty Wipfler

At times like these, we parents can play a very positive role.  We can set limits on our children's behavior in order to help them relieve the stress they're under & regain their innate good judgment & joy in cooperation.  When you think your child is being unreasonable, here are the steps to follow.

Listen

Get down so you are at eye level & simply ask what's going on.  Ask your child to tell you why she's yelling or why she has to have the blue dress that's in the wash. She needs to talk about the upset she feels, if possible, to someone who isn't upset too.

Limit

If she's insisting on unreasonable behavior, you must step in. Tell her what you think is reasonable & then make sure that her unreasonable behavior doesn't continue. If your child is yelling at her brother, tell her it's not helping to yell, ask her to stop & if she can't stop, pick her up gently & bring her w/you into another room. 

If she's throwing toys in anger, put your hand on the toy she's about to throw & say, "I won't let you throw that."  If she's insisting on having a 5th cookie, bring her into your lap, away from the cookies & tell her, "Not now.  Later, you can have another, but not now."

No punishment is needed, no lectures are needed, no harshness is needed. Simply step in.

Children who are under stress can't think well. They can't process what we tell them, so they don't do what we ask. You must expect this & step in, gently but firmly, to see that they don't continue to do irrational things.

Listen

This is the "stress release" step, the one which will help your child immensely.  After you have stepped in to prevent your child from doing things that don't make sense, she will most likely begin to cry, storm, or tantrum. 

This is constructive. It's your child's way of getting rid of the tension that made her unreasonable in the first place. If you can stay close while she cries or storms, she will continue until she has regained her ability to listen, to be cooperative & to make the best of the situation at hand.

Thinking About Feelings: The Role Of Meta-Mood In Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder

By Susan Ansorge, Ph..D, Brett T. Litz, Ph.D., and Susan M. Orsillo

NCP Clinical Quarterly 6(2): Spring 1996

An enduring legacy of trauma for those who manifest the chronic symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is profoundly disrupted emotion. Persons w/PTSD can be strikingly sensitive to the most subtle of social stimuli & respond w/a torrent of uncontrollable affect on the one hand & on the other hand they may report feeling emotionally unresponsive to events that they recognize would otherwise elicit emotion.

Whereas individuals who are better adjusted regard painful or intense emotions as understandable & controllable states that can be effectively coped w/via a number of strategies such as self-talk & seeking social support or validation, persons w/PTSD are likely to respond to emotional situations in a limited & inflexible manner.

Clinicians & researchers have described PTSD patients as limited in the ability to tolerate strong emotion & further propose that this deficit thwarts the recovery process (1).

Instead of allowing emotions to run their course & provide information to the individual about their experience of themselves & their environment, persons with PTSD often avoid the early warning signs of emotion placing themselves at risk for being overwhelmed by subsequent intense reactions.

In others instances they may be excessively vigilant & hypersensitive of the precursors to emotion & initiate any number of avoidance behaviors, some subtle, others extreme.

As van der Kolk and Ducey (p. 267) (2) suggested, "persons with severe PTSD are incapable of modulated affective experience; they either respond to affective stimuli with an intensity which is appropriate only to the traumatic situation or they barely react at all."

The range of emotional functioning difficulties associated with PTSD is acknowledged in the current nosology within each of the 3 major symptom clusters or categories (e.g., emotional reactivity associated w/re-experiencing, restricted range of affect & detachment associated w/emotional numbing & irritability associated w/hyperarousal) (3).

However, the mechanisms underlying these divergent symptoms aren't well appreciated in current theories of PTSD nor have researchers sufficiently examined them empirically (4-5).

The present paper describes one aspect of a program of research we have initiated to explore emotional dysregulation in PTSD. We outline the construct of meta-mood, or beliefs about feeling & discuss its applicability to the study of emotional-processing deficits in PTSD.

An examination of the underlying mechanisms associated w/ emotional functioning in PTSD is of particular relevance in the context of the clinical situation. Clinicians who treat PTSD patients spend a good deal of time helping them take a different stance about their emotional experience.

Regardless of theoretical orientation, all therapists assist PTSD patients in identifying, acknowledging, explaining, accepting & integrating emotions related to traumatic events & their aftereffects.

In fact, working w/traumatic material at any but the most superficial level requires a degree of willingness to experience & competence in dealing w/emotional experience that many persons w/PTSD may lack.

Our research addresses the following questions that have direct relevance to emotion-focused clinical work w/PTSD patients:

(a) Are there generalized attitudes & beliefs about feeling that are unique to PTSD?

(b) are thoughts & feelings about feeling (meta-cognitions) related to the manner in which threatening trauma-related material is processed emotionally 

(c) might these overarching beliefs about feeling be appropriate targets in treatment?

Affect Regulation & Affect Tolerance In PTSD

Several specific aspects of existing theories of PTSD (6-8) & limited empirical evidence (2) suggest that the difficulties in affect regulation evidenced by individuals w/PTSD may in part be due to what cognitive psychologists call top-down, conceptual, or executive cognitive processes that serve to organize & modulate affective experience.

To date, the specific roles that such processes may play in the etiology & persistence of PTSD haven't been adequately examined.

Recently, Litz (5) attempted to explicate the cognitive mechanisms underlying the emotional dysregulation associated w/PTSD. Drawing upon Levanthal's perceptual-motor theory of emotion, Litz proposed that the capacity to experience emotions at the expressive-motor or physiological level isn't impaired in PTSD.

Instead, emotional dysregulation in PTSD is proposed to be a result of a series information-processing events. Conditioned emotional reactions & other re-experiencing symptoms are considered primary manifestations of PTSD that serve to automatically trigger other secondary conditioned emotion routines (e.g., anger, sadness, shame).

In addition, conceptual-level, meta-cognitive processes (i.e., top-down rules about experiencing & expressing emotions) have a two-part influence on emotional behavior in PTSD. First, the conceptual rules that govern emotional behavior during states of hyper-reactivity & hyperarousal in PTSD patients are likely to be fairly primitive & are chiefly focused on coping thru cognitive &/or behavioral avoidance.

Second, over time, PTSD patients become predisposed to respond to a variety of emotional situations in restricted, inflexible, or excessive ways. These limitations are based on rigidly held attitudes & beliefs about emotion & the consequences of experiencing & expressing emotion (i.e., meta-mood processes).

Such higher-order cognitive processes in PTSD affect emotional behavior by cueing the activation of emotional routines (e.g., using anger as a means of obtaining control & creating interpersonal distance) as well as shape expressive-motor behavior (e.g., the extent to which someone smiles in the presence of a friend).

How might thoughts & beliefs about emotion or meta-mood play a role in the development of PTSD? Attitudes & feelings about emotion, especially in adults, are typically well formed prior to exposure to trauma & are likely to play a role in the experience of trauma & in recovery from it.

Meta-cognitive processes related to emotion may play an etiological role in the development of PTSD by facilitating or impeding the processing of the emotions & memories associated w/the event.

i.e., a soldier who enters the war-zone w/particular cognitive rules about emotion, such as the belief that feelings like grief & fear are unacceptable & uncontrollable, at the first thought or image of his lieutenant who had his legs blown off, might say to himself "dwelling on this will cause me to become very upset which is unacceptable & dangerous.

I might start to cry & completely lose all control of myself." A belief such as this would likely interfere w/this soldier's capacity to process & integrate the traumatic event into his awareness & understanding of himself & the world. Alternatively, beliefs about emotion might develop out of a traumatic situation.

A survivor of incest, e.g., might have complex beliefs about the potential for tender & positive feelings to lead to very destructive outcomes. Although researchers in the past hadn't specifically examined how persons w/PTSD think about their feelings, cognitive rules about emotion have been explored in non-clinical populations.

cathartic

adj

1: emotionally purging [syn: psychotherapeutic]

2: emotionally purging (of e.g. art) [syn: releasing]

3: strongly laxative [syn: evacuant, purgative] n : a purging medicine; stimulates evacuation of the bowels [syn: purgative, physic, aperient]

ecstatic

adj : feeling great rapture or delight